Tonghua Arabic: Unveiling the Linguistic Heritage of China‘s Hui Muslims344

The vast linguistic landscape of China is a captivating tapestry woven with hundreds of languages and dialects, each reflecting a unique cultural and historical thread. Amidst this rich diversity, certain linguistic phenomena stand out for their unexpected origins and profound cultural significance. One such intriguing case is what can be broadly understood as "Tonghua Arabic"—a term that points to the use and preservation of Arabic within the Hui Muslim communities of Tonghua, Jilin province, and by extension, other Hui communities across China. This linguistic heritage is not merely a foreign import but a deeply integrated component of Hui identity, bridging ancient trade routes with modern-day religious practice and cultural memory. This article delves into the intricacies of Tonghua Arabic, exploring its historical roots, its characteristics, its socio-cultural role, and the challenges it faces in the contemporary world.

To fully grasp the essence of Tonghua Arabic, one must first understand the historical trajectory of Islam in China and the formation of the Hui ethnic group. Islam arrived in China as early as the 7th century through maritime trade routes to the south and overland Silk Road routes to the northwest. Over centuries, Arab and Persian merchants, soldiers, and scholars settled in various parts of China, intermarrying with local Han Chinese populations. This process of cultural and biological amalgamation led to the emergence of the Hui people, officially recognized as one of China's 56 ethnic groups. The Hui, though ethnically diverse in their origins, share Islam as their unifying faith and have largely adopted Mandarin or local Chinese dialects as their mother tongue. However, Arabic, as the language of the Qur'an and Islamic tradition, has consistently maintained a sacred and scholarly presence within their communities.

Tonghua, a city nestled in the mountainous southeastern region of Jilin province in Northeast China, might seem an unlikely locale for a significant Arabic presence. Yet, like many other Hui communities scattered across China, the Muslims of Tonghua have preserved a connection to Arabic that is both unique and illustrative of broader trends. It's crucial to clarify that "Tonghua Arabic" does not denote a native, spoken dialect of Arabic in the way one might speak of Egyptian or Syrian Arabic. Instead, it refers primarily to the classical or literary Arabic used for religious purposes: the recitation of the Qur'an, the performance of daily prayers (salah), the call to prayer (adhan), the study of Islamic texts (Hadith, Fiqh), and inscriptions in mosques and cemeteries. It is, essentially, a learned, heritage language, meticulously transmitted across generations through religious education.

The characteristics of Arabic as it manifests in Tonghua and similar Hui communities are shaped by its liturgical and scholarly functions. Learners, typically children attending mosque schools (madrasas) or individuals studying under imams, acquire proficiency in reading and reciting the Qur'an. This often involves rote memorization and precise pronunciation, adhering to the rules of Tajwid (the science of reciting the Qur'an). While grammatical fluency in classical Arabic, enabling spontaneous conversation or composition, is less common and usually reserved for highly trained imams or scholars, the ability to decode and understand the meaning of key religious phrases and texts is widespread. The pronunciation of Arabic by Hui speakers, while striving for authenticity, often exhibits subtle influences from Mandarin phonology, particularly in the articulation of certain Arabic consonants that do not have direct equivalents in Chinese.

Beyond its purely religious function, Arabic in Tonghua serves a profound socio-cultural role, acting as a vital marker of Hui identity and a link to the global Islamic ummah (community). For the Hui, whose daily language is overwhelmingly Chinese, the ability to engage with Arabic texts or prayers provides a direct, tangible connection to their faith and their ancestors. It symbolizes a distinct cultural heritage that sets them apart while also connecting them to a broader transnational identity. In mosques, during religious ceremonies, funerals, or Eid celebrations, Arabic phrases and recitations imbue these events with a sacred atmosphere and reinforce communal bonds. The language becomes a shared code, understood and revered, even if not fully spoken, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity.

The linguistic landscape of Hui communities also features a fascinating related phenomenon: Xiao'erjing (شياوเอٔرجٍ / 小儿经). While not Arabic itself, Xiao'erjing is an Arabic-derived script used to write various Sinitic (Chinese) languages, particularly Mandarin. This script, which utilizes the Arabic alphabet with added diacritics to represent Chinese sounds, was historically used by Hui and other Muslim groups in China for everyday communication, religious texts, and even secular literature. While its active use has declined significantly in favor of standard Chinese characters (Hanzi) and Pinyin, its existence underscores the deep historical and cultural influence of Arabic within these communities. It demonstrates a creative adaptation, where the script of their sacred language was repurposed to write their vernacular, further solidifying the Arabic script's symbolic presence and its practical utility.

However, the preservation of Arabic within communities like Tonghua faces considerable challenges in the 21st century. The pervasive influence of Mandarin Chinese, driven by national education policies, media, and economic opportunities, has led to a decline in traditional religious education. Younger generations, often growing up in a secular educational environment, have fewer opportunities to learn Arabic, and their proficiency tends to be lower than that of their elders. The number of madrasas has decreased, and qualified teachers are scarce. Moreover, urbanization and migration patterns often disperse Hui communities, further eroding traditional modes of cultural and linguistic transmission. The pressure to integrate into the broader Han Chinese society, while often beneficial for economic advancement, can sometimes lead to a weakening of distinct ethnic and religious practices, including the use of Arabic.

Despite these challenges, efforts are underway to preserve and revitalize Arabic among the Hui. Community leaders, imams, and concerned individuals recognize the critical role Arabic plays in maintaining their religious identity and cultural heritage. Some mosques continue to offer basic Arabic lessons for children and adults. There are also digital initiatives, online resources, and scholarly projects aimed at documenting and teaching Hui Arabic. Researchers and linguists are increasingly interested in these unique manifestations of Arabic, contributing to a better understanding of language contact, heritage language maintenance, and the dynamics of religious minorities in large nation-states. These efforts, though often localized and resource-constrained, are vital for ensuring that Tonghua Arabic and similar traditions continue to thrive.

In conclusion, "Tonghua Arabic" is a captivating illustration of linguistic resilience and cultural adaptation. It is not a spoken vernacular but a sacred and scholarly language, meticulously cultivated and transmitted within Hui Muslim communities in Tonghua and beyond. It serves as an indelible link to their faith, their history, and their identity, connecting them to centuries of Islamic scholarship and the global Muslim ummah. While facing significant pressures from modernization and linguistic assimilation, the efforts to preserve Arabic underscore its enduring importance to the Hui people. This unique linguistic heritage stands as a testament to the rich tapestry of China's cultural diversity, where the echoes of ancient Arabic verses continue to resonate in the heart of Northeast Asia, bridging continents and centuries in a profound celebration of faith and identity.

2025-11-10

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